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Church and State in Korea, Russia, and Latin America
By E. G. Homrighausen

The Republic of Korea (South) is the scene of a serious conflict between the administration of President Park Chung Hee and certain intellectual, political, and religious groups. It has resulted in house arrests, indictments, imprisonments, censorships, police surveillance, and harassments by the, KCIA (Korea Central Intelligence Agency Recently a Korean Christian burned himself to death inside the large and well-known Yunnak Presbyterian Church in Seoul, as a lone dramatic protest against the government's determination to suppress all criticism of the regime.

South Korea is the creation of the bitter civil war which divided the nation in a costly and tragic struggle. It has become economically prosperous, largely because of its economic and military support by the United States, its affluent foreign trade especially with Japan, and its close alliance with western democracy. To that must be added the industry of refugees who fled the communist order of North Korea. South Korea has also allied itself with the United States in the Vietnam War for which it provided over 300,000 troops and from which it earned nearly a billion dollars. Until recently, the Republic of Korea has been identified by some as a model of western-type democracy in Asia.

What has happened to bring about a conflict between the state and the church, between the state and dissident persons and groups in South Korea? What is the cause of President Park's declaration of martial law in October, 1972, and now his emergency decree of January, 1974, which is designed to squelch growing protest movements? And what about his subsequent decree establishing an emergency court martial with General Lee Se-ho, former commander of the military forces in Vietnam as president of the tribunal? Why strong measures which make it illegal to "propose or petition for revision or repeal of the Constitution" by "reporting, broadcasting, or

From the first issue of THEOLOGY TODAY, thirty years ago, the name of Elmer G. Homrighausen has been associated with our venture in theological journalism. For many years, he has been the tireless and enthusiastic chronicler of the section on "The Church in the World." He occupies, we think, a unique place among church journalists, for no one can match his comprehensive and perceptive grasp of church life throughout the world. His familiarity with his subject comes not only from omnivorous reading but from personal contacts, journalistic digging and leg-work, and directly from his unceasing and far-ranging travels to every corner of the globe. Having retired from his administrative and teaching posts at Princeton Theological Seminary, "Homy" (as all his friends call him) wants to be liberated from the deadlines of his quarterly assignment with THEOLOGY TODAY. We are reluctantly acceding to that request, but we have plans to retain his good name as an occasional writer of articles, short features, and reviews.

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publishing or by any means," and subject to arrest, detention, search and seizure without warrant anyone who violates this order? Why this harsh, even fanatical, desire to silence all criticisms, demonstrations, or petitions by persons and groups who wish a restoration of Korean democracy?

And why the unprecedented move against Christians who throughout Korea's history have been loyal citizens, have defended Korean independence during the Japanese occupation, and have in recent years been the spiritual bulwark of South Korea? Why should action be taken against Christians, especially since Dr. Billy Graham's appearance attracted one million people in a single meeting in Seoul and thereby demonstrated the strength of the Christian community?

Why these fears of dissent in South Korea? A new breed of student is now expressing political opinion. Even among theological students there is an appeal in liberation theology which is impatient with any kind of Korean dependency. Some have studied abroad and brought back an emphasis upon the social implications of Christianity.

President Park is quite conscious of the new situation: the detente between the United States and Red China, the normalization of relations between Korea and Japan, the peace in Vietnam, and the withdrawal of troops from Southeast Asia, and now inflation and the oil crisis. And he knows that the people want "reforms."

Always there is the threat of North Korea that is united and highly motivated and would welcome a breakdown in public order in South Korea which could result in a takeover for communism. And there are South Koreans who hope for a softer approach toward the north and a final unification of the Korean people.

President Park remembers that Kim Dae Jung received 46 per cent of the votes in the presidential election of 1971; his supporters have not forgotten him. And the scandal connected with Kim's abduction in Tokyo has not strengthened the present government.

Christians who for the most part supported President Park with his pro-western and anti-communist stance have now become more aware of their vocation under the gospel in an order that has become increasingly totalitarian. They are good Koreans, but they are not willing to allow their freedom in the gospel to be silenced or even compromised. This is a new factor in the situation.

Above all, President Park faces the question of public confidence and national unity without which even the most centralized repressive government cannot lead a nation.

Outstanding Christian leaders have been involved in protests, including Stephan Cardinal Kim; Kim Jae Jun, former President of Korea Theological Seminary; Dr. George L. Paik, President Emeritus of Yonsei University; Rev. Kim Hwan Suk, General Secretary of the Korean National Council of Churches; and many others. One of the most dramatic incidents was the arrest of Rev. Park Hyung Kyu, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Seoul who, with three

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other church workers was accused of planning an anti-government revolt. Leaflets were distributed in an Easter Service in 1973, calling for the "restoration of democracy." What may have triggered suspicion against Mr. Park was the fact that he has been a friend of the poor, and particularly of the slum dwellers who were about to be displaced by a new highway. Park's commitment to these masses may be a factor in the government's fear of his leadership among them.

The Korean National Council of Churches issued a Declaration of Human Rights after a two-day consultation and affirmed that "human rights are the most valuable things given by God . . . God intends a society in which human rights are not infringed upon … the mission of the church in this generation is (to be) the establishment of human rights, which is the basis of the survival of the individual and the foundation of the development of society … The present reality of Korean society is that human rights have been mercilessly trampled upon … there is only a facade of democracy, while the people's freedom is withheld … At this time, when even religious freedom is being withdrawn, the church must earnestly repent of its former negative attitude of being just an onlooker, and it must make a new decision to fight until it achieves the freedom of the establishing of human rights."

Another official statement was made by the Presbyterian Church of the Republic of Korea in connection with events involving the arrest of several ministers. It affirmed that "such a chain of events will eventually result in the concern that freedom of faith and mission is being limited, and this is related to freedom of speech, one of the basic rights of a democratic society. We are convinced that the extension of individual freedom and the people's trust in democracy are the best means for dealing with an autocratic communist structure. This, we firmly believe, is the basis on which the Republic of Korea was established, and we are sure that even to the present time, the true spirit of patriotic sacrifice has grown, and that has kept Korea free."

The statement calls attention to the place and record of the Korean Church in the nation's character and history. And while the church is not a political body, its "ultimate loyalty is to the word of God, which it follows according to its faith and conscience, not only for the sake of the spiritual salvation of the nation, but also for the purpose of helping to bring about permanent prosperity and the stature of national freedom." And it concludes with the ringing affirmation, "Therefore, if the Government, or any secular group suppresses Christian workers performing their prophetic mission according to the word of God as directed by their Christian conscience, it is, in our view, a matter of deep concern because this is a question of life and death to a Christian's faith."

It seems clear that this conflict in Korea is more than a church-state matter; it has to do with the relation of the gospel to a cultural situation that is unique to Korea but similar to that which obtains in

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nations of the Third World. It is in painful ferment like this that the renewal of the church takes place, and the real issues of life and history are discerned. In some way, Korean Christianity is coming of age in an old culture which finds itself in the welter of rapid change precipitated by modern technology and international powers. Those who know the fervor and the fibre of Korean Christianity will follow this conflict with prayer and hope.

RELIGIOUS REVIVAL IN RUSSIA?

While the Soviet Union is still an avowed atheistic nation and affirms an "unyielding war against religious patterns of thought (which have no place alongside a materialistic worldview, social, scientific and technical progress)" and aims to suppress all these " relics" of the past, there are evidences that religion persists in Russia and may even be in a modest state of revival.

All religious groups must register with the State Ministry of Religious Affairs, although there are unregistered groups of Baptists and even some Orthodox who operate underground. It is illegal to organize or give systematic teaching of religion to minors. This still obtains, although the USSR adopted the 1960 United Nations Convention of Education which affirms that "parents must have the opportunity of guaranteeing the religious and moral upbringing of their children according to their own beliefs." Also banned is any "zealous proselytization" of young people as well as baptism of children and their attendance at church services.

There is some discrimination against Christians in the areas of housing, university opportunities, scholarships, and jobs. Instances of Baptists and even Orthodox Christians being imprisoned and maltreated have come to light in recent years. Even Sergey Zheludkov, a prominent writer of the underground press, challenged Alexander Solzhenitzyn for neglecting to mention in his protest churchmen Boris Talanton who died in prison and Anotoly Levitin who is still in prison.

In spite of Russia's atheistic stance and policy, religion persists and even expresses itself in novel forms. No doubt, this is true of Islamic groups in the USSR, as attested by the restoration of the tomb of Tamerlane in Samarkand, a shrine among Muslims. It is also true of the Jews who have survived in spite of harsh legal restrictions, and who are receiving much attention in the world press because of their demand for the human right to emigrate to Israel and other lands.

It is estimated that there are between 40-60 million members in the Russian Orthodox Church. There are 50 churches operating in Moscow each of which provides two worship services daily. The Orthodox Church maintains a dozen monasteries. There are 1,000 students studying at the three seminaries in Zagorsk, Leningrad, and Odessa. There are 7,500 parishes in Russia divided into 73 dioceses.

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Little is known about Roman Catholics, but it is estimated that they number one million in Russia. However, there are many more in the satellite countries, perhaps three and one-half million in Lithuania.

The Baptists, perhaps one million, are the largest Protestant group in Russia. As already indicated, after the rigid restrictions placed upon the registered Baptists group in 196 1, many became members of an underground church because they could not comply with the state's demand. Many died in prison or exile, some were fined, their homes (where worship was held) destroyed, and even some of their children were placed with atheistic families. Today the Baptists are reuniting, and they carry on well-attended services of worship, of which the church in Moscow is well known to tourists.

But beyond these large and recognized religious groups there are other indications of a renewed interest in religion in Russia. Perhaps the most dramatic event that has brought world-wide attention is the case of Alexander Solzhenitzyn, Nobel Prize winner, and one of Russia's greatest novelists. He is a devoted Christian layman and member of the Russian Orthodox Church. In his final manifesto to Soviet leaders he urged that the Russian Orthodox Church be permitted to operate without official harassment and that it be restored as the leading source of national moral values to replace communism.

He also wrote a Lenten Letter in 1972 to Patriarch Pimen, in which he accused him of collaboration with atheism, no doubt an allusion to the fact that the chairman and his three deputies in the Council of Religious Affairs are atheists. And Solzhenitsyn is not the only person of leadership who is expressing himself along these lines.

Alla-Tarasova. world famous actress of the Moscow Arts Theatre, a member of the communist party and deputy of the Supreme Soviet, left a will that she be given a religious funeral. Leonid M. Leonov, writer and secretary of the Writers Union, is said to have confessed religious belief. Communist publications from time to time criticize members of communist organizations for participating in religious events and services. Some observers believe that a major change may be forthcoming in the relation of the party to the church.

The role of religion in the cultural history of Russia simply cannot be hidden. It is not uncommon to find intellectuals who have religious icons or crosses in their homes. There is a lively sale for religious souvenirs. Books of art portray great religious art and personages of the past. Some young people are being married in cathedrals instead of "wedding palaces." The writings of Dostoevsky, Berdyaev, and Shakespeare, with their biblical and theological references, have taken on a new interest.

One recent observer in Russia has learned that a young painter, Yuri Titov, who formerly portrayed communist scenes, now portrays creations of the conflict between good and evil, religion and atheism. And another visitor to Moscow's young artists' exhibit found a painting featuring a modish young couple inspecting the sanctuary art

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of an old church. They wear blue jeans and hold motorcycle helmets as they gaze intently at the art. This observer suggests that this painting may be symbolical of many young people in Russia today who are fascinated by the old and the beautiful in Russia's cultural history.

Whatever one may think about the so-called current revival of religion in Russia, there are evidences of a resurgence of deep religious feeling issuing out of the great Russian soul.

CRISIS OF THE CHURCHES IN LATIN AMERICA

The churches in Latin America whether Roman Catholic, Protestant, or independent, are deeply involved in the theological and cultural realities of the entire continent. According to President José Miguez-Bonino of Union Theological Seminary in Buenos Aires, "bishops, synods, and conferences make headlines by denouncing repression, torture, and injustice. Priests and laymen join revolutionary movements and many are accused, persecuted, and put in prison. Some 400 'Christians for Socialism' met in Santiago last year to witness to the unity of their Christian faith and their political commitment."

In certain areas Pentecostalism has mushroomed. Theological literature is on best seller lists. There are signs of religious revival. But enrollments in seminaries have dropped considerably; priests have left the ministry in such numbers that it is called a "vanishing profession." Conflicts and tensions grow in the churches as conservatives, progressives, revolutionaries, denominationalists, revivalists, and charismatics divide the Christian community.

President Bonino asks, "Are we witnessing the dissolution of the last bulwark of 'massive Christianity,' or is this a new breed of Christian being born?"

Both Catholic and Protestant communities are involved in this crisis; the Catholics because they are bound up with the colonial order of the sixteenth century conquistadores; Protestants because of their nineteenth and twentieth century introduction of "modernization" which is now called "neo-colonialism" or "imperialism."

There has now emerged in Latin America a "new consciousness" which is called "liberation." It rejects both the oppression of foreign powers (from Europe and the United States), and local oligarchies and religious paternalism. This new liberation theology and its social implementation is precipitating the crisis in the churches.

This liberation does not issue from a strategy of "reform" which is associated with recent models of development. It issues from the crisis in development itself which is a method used in developing coun-

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tries to help them achieve the bourgeois-capitalistic style of life. This liberation will have nothing to do with the dependency of Latin America on wealthy and powerful nations, or dependency upon powerful minorities of the élite in their respective states.

According to Hugo Assmann, a Brazilian priest, theologian, and sociologist, Latin Americans see underdevelopment as a result of dependence and exploitation by the affluent nations. They want freedom from foreign power centers and Herodian groups within each nation who control Latin America's cultural, political, and economic life.

Christians who join the movement for liberation are out of step with their churches. They affirm they have a new vision of the church. For them, the prophetic element in Christianity (prophecy as denouncement and action) takes precedence over institutional elements. According to Assmann, they find that "traditional Christian social ethics and the social doctrines of the church are totally inadequate to make operative, in the cause of liberation, the most radical implications of the faith." And because they must take sides with the exploited they know they place themselves in opposition to the majority of Christians in the churches. The result is conflict, a central theme for the "theology of liberation." They are obliged to denounce the false ideology of unity-without-conflict in the church.

This means that the Roman Catholic Church's traditional forms of influence and leadership are regarded as failures; it must find a form of influence that is relevant to and in solidarity with the needs and hopes of the masses. This threatens its relation to the political and economic élite. And governments will not favor a church that does not support law and order. Bishops are concerned about priests and laymen who identify with revolution and subversion. Some priests denounce the church for lack of courage.

Protestants who have been champions of "development" along lines of American democracy, science, technology, freedom, now realize that they have been instrumental in promoting another kind of imperialism. Once they were the liberators from ignorance, superstition, scholasticism, élitism, and inertia; now they seem to support the invasion of national conservatism, vested interests, and neo-imperialism. Institutions are imported; methods and literature are translated. And in this situation, Protestantism wonders about its mission, now that Roman Catholicism has become interested in renewal through a new emphasis upon Christ and the Bible.

Some churches have gone so far as to condemn the capitalistic system, as did the Latin American Council of Bishops at Medellin (1968) and the Argentina Methodist Church (1971). This involves action against the present system and cooperation with left-wing parties and movements. Many groups of priests are found in these revolutionary groups (Priests for the Third World in Argentina; ONIS in Peru; The Eighty in Chili; the Galconda Movement in Colombia). They work with the urban poor and in rural areas, with

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workers and students, trying to awaken people to concern and political decision. Church and Society in Latin America (ISAL), a Protestant group, is at work in Bolivia, Argentina, and elsewhere as a center of dialogue and mutual support for groups at work among labor unions, students, and peasant leagues.

These groups do not extol violence but some may regard it as a last resort and possibly unavoidable. Dom Helder Camara of Brazil has chosen "peaceful violence" as his method. It seems as if this ferment in the churches has brought about a hardening of positions, and some churches and churchmen have accused the liberationists of communist infiltration, of destroying the church, and of heresy. And the conflict has affected the "center" group by driving some to more conservative or radical positions.

For some, this ferment is a distressing sign of the dissolution of the church and of Christianity; for others, it is the slow but painful birth of a "new Christian consciousness." The new Latin American theologians say they are not trying to create a new theology, but that they are trying to reflect upon questionable notions of liberation, to unmask reactionary ideologies that falsify true piety and theology, to investigate how the gospel becomes reality without developing into another ideology, to unlock the Christian conscience for full participation in the formation of a new society, to engage in dialogue with others committed to the liberation of the whole person, and to explore the meaning of Christian hope.

AND NOW-IN CONCLUSION

It has been a privilege, a task, and a joy to be associated for many years with THEOLOGY TODAY through the writing of "The Church in the World." It has been a privilege to work with John A. Mackay, James I. McCord, Hugh T. Kerr, and all those who founded and fostered this enterprise in theological journalism. THEOLOGY TODAY has a world-wide circulation, readership, and influence which is impossible to calculate. In my travels and missions to all continents, I have found it in numerous personal and institutional libraries.

It has also been a task to keep abreast of the relation of the church to the world on a global scale. This has involved much travel; wide reading in books, journals, press services, official reports; personal participation in events; and an international correspondence. Church press services have increased in volume and improved in quality through the years, but, even so, there is much to be desired in the church's public relations in the field of journalism, radio, and TV. I owe a great deal to a growing number of increasingly competent religious correspondents and editors, as I do to the official church press services. But this has also made me aware of the illiteracy among

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members of churches who know so little of what the church is doing in various parts of the world, what is happening in and through and beyond churches, and what the churches are confronting and suffering in many parts of the world. I am sure that if more Christians were aware of these events and the personalities involved, a fresh sense of belonging to the whole people of God would enhance their daily lives and inspire their Christian witness.

It has also been a joy to watch the Christian community and its members in their relationships with national, regional, and international situations, to observe the responses that churches make to new forces which demand novel forms of adjustment, to learn how traditional churches confront new political ideologies, and how young churches react to emergent nationalisms. This joy has moved me ever since my graduate study in the history of the Christian movement. The mysterious yet effective way in which Christianity moved out of its provincial origin in Palestine, penetrated the Graeco-Roman world, rooted itself in the great cities of that classical world, then made its way to the east as far as India, northeast into Russia, northwest into Europe, the British Isles, and then across the oceans to other continents, will never cease to make me wonder at its secret.

How the person of Jesus Christ, the center of the Christian enterprise, gathered and continues to gather to himself a company of followers of all races, cultures, stations, ages, and times must give any serious observer pause. He has made an impact upon hundreds of millions of people; he has elicited from them gifts of mind, hand, soul, service, money which have combined to create a Christian tradition, culture, style of life, literature, art, institution (whether educational or charitable), and architecture that the student of history cannot avoid. There have been reverses and failures in the Christian story, and at times Christians and their churches have used their faith for un-Christian purposes which have dishonored the name and cause of Jesus Christ. And yet, though the gospel is contained in "earthen vessels" and Christians "see through a glass darkly," it is amazing that the power of the gospel of Jesus Christ has been so influential for so long in human history.

This same power is at work in our time. There is evidence that it is no longer the monopoly of the organized church, if it ever was. Never has Jesus been so widely known and perhaps so highly regarded as he is at the present time, even outside the older Christian circles in Europe and the United States. This is a new phenomenon in Christian history.

As I look back over the years of reporting on "The Church in the World," there are several factors which call for specific attention.

(1) The birth and growth of the ecumenical movement is epitomized through the history of the World Council of Churches. From a council of 147 churches from 48 countries in 1948, it now embraces 263 churches from 90 countries. Four out of ten churches are from the

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Third World. Its work focuses in faith and witness, justice and service, education and renewal, thereby gathering into itself the older ecumenical movements of faith and order, life and work, international missions, and world Christian education. It sponsors study groups on biblical, economic, ethical, theological, racial, and other issues bearing upon life in a technological society. It generates regional councils of churches; it conducts world assemblies; it provides fellowship for Christians from north and south, east and west, in which they may worship and discuss their differences. Through these last twenty-five years, it has been concerned with renewal, the common calling of all churches, the problems of the world, the Third World, the relations of widely-divergent churches, and the voice of evangelical ecumenism. In spite of criticisms against the Council because of its élitism, its overemphasis on the horizontal at the expense of the vertical, its critical deficiency in theological content, and its lack of churchly substance, it is the most important fact of church history in this century. The Council has brought about a new relation of the churches to a technologically unified world.

(2)The calling of Vatican Council II is another major fact of our time. At first thought impossible by both Protestants and Catholics, it was brought into being by the forceful leadership of Pope John XXIII. It was the most significant assembly of Catholic leaders since the Council of Trent. By it, the windows of the church were opened to the world with astonishing results. The Roman Church broke out of its protective ghetto; it has taken on a new stance; and in spite of many resulting problems, it has experienced renewal and enjoys a more penetrating relation to the world.

(3)The persistence of the church especially in new political orders, which were determined either to seduce the church into union with a totalitarian nationalism or to eradicate the church by a militant atheistic socialism, is another astonishing reality in our time. The churches in Eastern Europe and Russia have not only survived; on the contrary, they have through a painful ordeal recovered the reality and vocation of the church in a controlled society. Few realize that we have lived through an age of martyrdom in the churches; uncounted Christians have valued the reality of their faith more than their physical lives.

(4)The growth of the churches has been phenomenal. There may be reverses in western churches, but reports from Africa, the Pacific Islands, Indonesia, Korea, Taiwan, parts of Latin America indicate that the numbers of disciples is on the increase. And not so much through western mission societies as through indigenous witnessing by persons and Christian groups. To be sure, statistics are not only unreliable but often deceitful and insignificant. But they do say something about the power of the gospel today. And who knows the influence of that power outside the organized churches?

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(5)The vitality of the churches is indicated by the manifold number of renewal projects in progress in the various Christian communions and congregations. The church has a remarkable capacity for self-criticism. In face of opposition from within and without, most churches now have listed priorities. One large denomination has a typical list: evangelism and outreach; personal spiritual growth; ministry to persons and problems; leadership development; Christian cooperation; strengthening the small church. Highest on the list of these priorities are renewal of spirituality and the communication of the faith, followed by active ministry through laypersons in the common life.

(6)One of the puzzling phenomena of our time is the widespread influence of the figure of Jesus Christ. He "turns on" youth. He is the center of musicals such as Jesus Christ Superstar and Godspell. Many today are saying, "Jesus, yes; church, no." Whatever one may think about the Christology of the popular Jesus-figure, he is the authentic person-for-others for many who are outside the churches. And the "popularity" of Jesus is part of what has been termed the current religious revival with its interest in the inward journey, immediacy of religious experience, intimacy in Christian fellowship, integrity of being, and identity of personal reality. This revival is producing a mass of literature in the form of newssheets, paperbacks, guides for living, and devotional helps. Incidentally, the paraphrase of the New Testament, Good News for Modern Man, has now surpassed the 40 million mark.

(7)A rather unsettling factor in the present situation is the fluidity of so much in church life and in Christian thinking. Among many Roman Catholics, there is the feeling that everything is falling apart and that the substance of the "faith of our fathers" is dissolving into a swamp of private feelings and opinions. The great Protestant giants of theology of the recent past are gone; their theologies seem no longer relevant. Instead, everyone is doing his own theological thing; heresy is passe; relevancy is the key to making Christianity real; innovations must replace tradition; the now is more important than the past or the to-be. Little wonder then that conservative churches are growing; that young people look for a disciplined way of life; that there seems to be a renewal of old "mainline" churches.

But it must be said that this time of freedom from traditional and ecclesiastical restraints, this period of alternating growth and decline, this ambiguous but exciting age of the church is a time for reflecting on God's purpose, through us, for the world. It is a time to re-examine the conventional religiosity of local churches, a time to explore the rich dimensions of the Christian way of life, a time to do some elemental theological thinking, a time to humanize our docetic Christologies, a time to recover the church as a community of persons held together by The Person, a time to see the local and the ecumenical, the personal and the communal, the human and the natural, the tradi-

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tional and the experiential, the provincial and the planetary, the now and the yet-to-be.

Whether we see chaos or whether we see creation, "eye has not seen nor ear heard" what God has yet in store for us all.