195 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God
|
195 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
Bible Translation and the Gender of God
By S T Kimbrough, Jr.
HOW can we use the language of Scripture, be faithful to the biblical message, and meet the needs of a world and church for inclusive ministry and language? Some aver that one must disclaim the word "Lord" as a name for God, for its masculine connotations are too offensive. A group of Hebrew and Psalter specialists, Harrell Beck, John Holbert, S T Kimbrough, Jr., and Alan Luff, were given the mandate as a Psalms Text Committee to prepare a United Methodist Liturgical Psalter for the revision of the United Methodist Hymnal to be published in 1989. Our work has brought into focus some interesting insight for reclaiming the name "Lord" for the whole church. It grows out of a careful scrutiny of the biblical text and biblical tradition.
The Psalms Text Committee had as a primary concern faithfulness to the biblical text, so that the United Methodist Liturgical Psalter has integrity as a translation. For the first time in the history of American Protestantism, a major denomination has prepared a liturgical Psalter for public worship based upon a primary biblical translation (New Revised Standard Version [NRSV) with a genuine concern for the meaning of the text, Hebrew lyricism, readability, singability, and inclusive language.
I
The God of Israel has a distinctive name, YHWH, in Holy Scripture. The English name "Jehovah" is a hybrid form of the consonants YHWH and the vowels of the Hebrew word for "Lord" (Adonai, see below), hence it is not a serious option for the vocalization of the name YHWH. Another suggested spelling, "Yahweh," arises as the result of persuasive evidence from discoveries in West Semitic language literature. W. F. Albright long contended that there was only one plausible explanation for YHWH, namely, Yahweh, a causative Hebrew verb form translated "He causes to be." It is clear from Greek transcriptions of YHWH that the pronunciation "Yahweh" was known. Nevertheless, it cannot be maintained conclusively that we know the specific origin of the pronunciation or that it is unequivocably correct.
Accompanying vowels for the consonants YHWH were not preserved
S T Kimbrough, Jr. is a member of the Center of Theological Inquiry, Princeton, New Jersey. An Old Testament scholar, he is author of Israelite Religion in Sociological Perspective (1978) and six other books. He has taught on theological faculties in the U.S.A. and abroad. Kimbrough is also an expert on Wesleyan hymnody.
|
|
196 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
in the Hebrew text and the name YHWH was not spoken because of the awesome reverence attached to it. Exactly when this tradition originated is unclear, but by the tenth century B.C.E. 'Adonai was already functioning as a surrogate for YHWH (see Psalms 68 and 78). This would suggest that by the time of the monarchy the tradition of reverence for the name YHWH existed. In the fully developed tradition, 'Adonai was substituted each time one encountered YHWH. During the time of the Second Temple, the high priest pronounced the holiest of divine names only on the Day of Atonement upon entering the holy place. Such usage diminished, however, and eventually ceased after the Temple was destroyed in A.D. 70. In any case, at the heart of Israel's devotional life a tremendous sense of awe surrounded the unutterable divine name, YHWH, which invoked God's presence.
The word usually substituted for YHWH was 'Adonai which comes from the word 'adon, a common noun meaning "Lord." 'Adonai is the plural form of the noun with the first person singular possessive suffix. Translated both "my Lord" (Ex. 4:10) and "the Lord" (Ps. 37:13), 'Adonai is the traditional Hebrew language substitute for YHWH, and it is clear that Israel understood YHWH to be the Lord of creation, the world, and the community, and to be the Holy One who expected Israel's obedience.
The other most common name for God in Hebrew is 'Elohim, which we translate as "God." It is a plural form of the noun, and perhaps the English word "deity" is closer to its meaning. In the Hebrew scriptures, it usually appears with a verb in the singular, which may indicate that it was understood to be a valid means of expressing monotheism. Hence, 'Elohim used in the singular sense is characteristically a Hebraic usage and can therefore be a synonym for YHWH. This is not true of other Hebrew words for God, such as 'El, which may refer to YHWH or any other god(s). It is interesting that in the so-called "Elohistic Psalter" there are examples of the interchangeable use of YHWH and 'Elohim.
II
The words "Lord" and "God" have been used interchangeably in the United Methodist Liturgical Psalter, since in North American English language usage they are essentially synonymous. The NRSV consistently translates YHWH as "LORD" and 'Elohim as "God."
One cannot be faithful to the biblical text and render the two primary names for God (YHWH and 'Elohim) by one name only, such as "God," since the two are not pure synonyms. While 'Elohim can be a synonym for YHWH, the reverse is not necessarily the case, for YHWH embodies nuances of meaning not found in 'Elohim. Furthermore, reference to the deity as 'adon or "Lord" is fundamental to the Hebrew scriptures. It is by far Israel's most characteristic way of referring to God. There are terms which indicate familial or blood relationships, such as father and brother-the name Abijah means "YHWH is my father" (I Kings 14:1 1) and Ahijah means "YHWH is my brother," (I
|
|
197 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
Kings II: 29)-but they are not Israel's primary way of referring to the deity.
None of the names-Yahweh, Jehovah, Lord-is a translation of YHWH, for it is the unpronounceable and untranslateable name for God. "Lord" is the English equivalent of 'adon, the word substituted for YHWH in Hebrew. Some early English Bibles used "Jehovah" for YHWH, and one contemporary translation, The Jerusalem Bible, uses "Yahweh." The Revised Standard Version of the Bible meticulously adheres to the word LORD in capital letters for each occurrence of YHWH. In the United Methodist Liturgical Psalter, as in the NRSV, when YHWH appears it is rendered "Lord."
III
While in the American colonies there may have been some residual connotations attached to the word "Lord" from the days of English feudalism when the Lord of the Manor reigned supreme over his serfs, by the time of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries any such connotations had long passed from American English. Furthermore, the substitution of 'adonai ("Lord" in English) for YHWH in Hebrew scripture is a matter unrelated to the English feudal society's use of "Lord."
The primary argument against the use of "Lord" as regards inclusive language for God centers upon the claim that it is a male term or name which specifically denotes male dominance and, therefore, suggests that the God of Scripture is a male dominant deity. One cannot support this argument, however, from within Hebrew language and Scripture, nor from within the confines of the history and language of North America. Americans never took the Salisbury Oath vowing full allegiance to a liege lord. Americans have no House of Lords, no honorary title of "Lord." One of the few uses of the word "lord" in North American English is as a verb, "to lord it over." This usage certainly refers to dominance over someone or something, but is readily used both in referring to males and females. To aver that "lord" is a male dominant term in North American English lacks linguistic evidence, misappropriates a sociological connection from centuries past, and misconstrues the meaning of the surrogate Hebrew name for YHWH, namely, 'Adonai. The social location of the name "Lord" in North America is primarily in the religious community as a form of address for deity and as a synonym for "God."
Precisely this synonymous usage is of primary importance for contemporary efforts to achieve the most inclusive language possible for God and the people of God in Bible translations. It is no doubt best to follow Hebrew language tradition and retain "Lord" as the English equivalent of 'Adonai, the Hebrew substitute for YHWH. One may, however, use "Lord" and "God" interchangeably in place of the third person masculine singular pronouns which refer to God. Why employ such a process in translation?
|
|
198 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
The meaning, connotation, and nuance of language often change from one historical period to another. One need only read short portions of the King James Version and the Revised Standard Version to affirm this reality. Such changes may be linguistic shifts precipitated by speech patterns and the social location of language. All language has a specific social context.
In twentieth century North America, a social revolution is taking place for women which has initiated concerns in the religious community for inclusive language about God, the assembly of faith, and humankind as a whole. One such concern has to do with the use of the masculine pronouns, "he," "him," and "his," when referring to God in Scripture, liturgy, and general speech. It must be clear that this is a concern which our social context brings to the language of Scripture. However, one must move from Scripture and its language base outward to our time, not merely transplant one language base with another. Otherwise, one bypasses completely the history of language and ideas. The contemporary inclusive language argument too easily assumes, for example, that all third person masculine singular pronoun references to God in the Hebrew scriptures imply the opposite of "she"; that is, that the use of masculine pronouns infers God is male. If this is so, we are forced to decide whether God's "maleness" is a linguistic accident, a peculiarity of the Hebrew language, or a specific intention of the Hebrew writers. But the question simply goes away when we realize that there is no philological evidence that the writers of the Hebrew scriptures intended the opposite of female by the use of third person masculine singular pronouns.
There is no neuter pronoun in Hebrew. Therefore, God is never referred to as "it." In spite of the use of the plural form of 'Elohim ("God") with singular pronouns, the Hebrew writers did not characteristically refer to the God of Israel as "they," for this would have had antimonotheistic implications. So, the singular pronoun expresses, at most, a monotheistic concern.
All language for God, including pronouns, is symbolical, albeit highly meaningful and divinely revealed. Symbolical language is used when the reality cannot be fully expressed. Some such language reveals more about God in the Scriptures than other language. What do the third person masculine singular pronouns reveal about God? To answer "Nothing" would be misleading, since they are a part of the language and shape the overall language picture one receives in reading. But to assume that they present a false representation of God as male is untenable.
IV
The problem we face in our time is that a transformation is taking place in North American English usage as regards inclusive language. The publishing industry is now flooded with guidelines for writing within an inclusive language base. For example, instead of writing, "Every
|
|
199 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
parent is responsible and he must bear responsibility... " one now writes, "All parents are responsible and they must bear responsibility...." This avoids referring to "parent" with "he" as though all parents were male. More and more, our language base will be inclusive.
The church is confronted with such change and must examine its language. It is impossible to bypass this discussion, even as regards the third person masculine singular pronoun references to God, for there are many who are troubled by them. How can Bible translation help resolve this issue?
Here the interchangeable use of "Lord" and "God" becomes important. It is God to whom the pronouns refer, and when the two names are used in their place the meaning of the biblical text is not diminished. Indeed, at times, it is enhanced.
What is most difficult is the adjustment to language to which the eyes, ears, and tongue are not accustomed. Also, creating inclusive language translations that embody the highest qualities of English rhetoric is no easy task. Yet, it is not impossible.
The interchangeable use of the words "Lord" and "God" has made it possible to provide a liturgical and lectionary Psalter that is faithful to the biblical text and allows the text to speak of God in the third person singular without using third person masculine singular pronouns. The option to use these names of God interchangeably was the enabling factor in producing a text for public reading that is understandable, smooth, and faithful to Hebrew poetry, reflecting effective assonance and alliteration without the use of third person masculine singular pronouns. Such translation allows God to be God without the implication of the transference of an explicit, one-sided human sexuality to God.
V
There is one exception to these results in the United Methodist Liturgical Psalter, namely, some occurrences of the third person masculine singular possessive pronoun "his" in reference to God. The possessive pronoun, "his," presents a different problem from the nominative and accusative ones, but it is in some instances a theological not a linguistic matter. When one speaks in Scripture of "his people" or "his servant" with God as the antecedent of "his," the third person masculine singular possessive pronoun conveys the idea of a particular relationship. Such occurrences are often rendered in the United Methodist Liturgical Psalter in the possessive of the names of God and Lord: "God's people...... the Lord's servant." However, when there is more than a singular occurrence within a verse or immediately succeeding verses, such renderings can result in awkward sentence structure for public reading and in some instances may convey the wrong meaning. Ps. 125: 1, for example, reads:
The Lord surrounds his people
As the mountains surround Jerusalem.
|
|
200 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
If one translates this as "The Lord surrounds God's people," it implies that God's people may be other than the Lord's. If one tries "The Lord surrounds the Lord's people," the alliteration and repetition are awkward and not in character with Hebrew poetry. The suggestion, "The Lord surrounds the people of the Lord," is hardly an improvement. Why not avoid the whole problem by translating, "The people of the Lord are surrounded by the Lord" ? That would involve restructuring the Hebrew in a fashion not in keeping with faithfulness to the text. The Psalms Text Committee, however, did propose another rendering of the text:
The Lord surrounds this people
As the mountains surround Jerusalem.
Why render the text with "this people"? Because we are told in verse one who the people are. They are "those who trust in the Lord." There can be no misunderstanding as to which people are meant here, hence, the demonstrative pronoun was suggested as a possible option to the possessive pronoun.
Unquestionably, more work needs to be done in the arena of inclusive linguistics as regards Scripture and the language of worship. But one must not lose sight of two very important issues: (1) it cannot be said that the biblical writers wanted to convey anything about God's sexuality with the use of the third person masculine singular pronouns; (2) the usage of these pronouns in Hebrew scripture in reference to God is not determined by the word "Lord," since they refer to YHWH, the unpronounceable name of God for which 'adon (Lord) is a substitute. This preference has deep religious meaning, but it is not a sexual preference. Given these presuppositions, the Psalms Text Committee discovered that one could speak of God in the third person singular without the use of pronouns and that the biblical text did not lose any of its meaning and was often enhanced for public reading (see below, Ps. 103:6-7). It presented a lectionary Psalter to the General Conference which included no third person masculine singular pronouns in reference to God,
When the revised United Methodist Hymnal came before the General Conference in 1988 for approval, there was widespread acceptance except on one issue. The absence of masculine pronouns in the United Methodist Liturgical Psalter proved a stumbling block. Our solution was not entirely accepted and, in the light of the opposition within the legislative committee of the Conference, it became clear that the document would not be approved without compromise. So, the Psalms Text Committee carefully went back through the Psalter it had prepared and noted some three score instances where the renderings "God's," "Lord's," or the demonstrative pronoun "this" could perhaps be awkward or misleading and suggested that "his" might be retained only in those cases. This compromise was disappointing, but it made it possible for the new hymnal, which includes the Psalter discussed here, to be approved by an overwhelming majority.
|
|
201 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
VI
When the Psalms Text Committee held one of its first meetings, among the psalms assigned to me for preparation was Psalm 103. 1 reported to the committee that it was a daunting task to solve the problem of inclusive language for God in this psalm, for it contains twenty-nine masculine pronouns in reference to God within a total of twenty-two verses in both the NRSV and the RSV. Fifteen of them occur in the fourteen verses included here. The committee concurred and left most of the pronouns in place. Two years later, after our method had been more fully developed, we approached the text again. The following portion of the psalm illustrates the results of our work and the positions discussed in this article.
One can follow the results best by placing a copy of the RSV (the NRSV is not yet published) translation of Psalm 103 beside this text, noting carefully the God-language. In verses six and seven, the interchangeable use of Lord and God frees the text of masculine connotations for God which may be inferred by the pronouns; however, the text retains the particularity of the third person possessive pronoun as pertains to divine activity through the renderings "God's ways" and "God's acts." In verses eight through ten, the repetition of "Lord," which alternates between the lector and congregation at the beginning of each succeeding affirmation about God's response to humankind, underscores the rising dynamism of the passage, especially for the "call and response" pattern in public worship reading, which culminates in the assertion of verse ten, "The Lord does not deal with us according to our sins, nor repay us according to our iniquities."
Psalm 103:1-141
1 The United Methodist Liturgical Psalter, edited by Harrell Beek, John Holbert, S T Kimbrough, Jr., and Alan Luff, c 1989 The United Methodist Publishing House, based on the New Revised Standard Version Bible 1989, and adapted by permission of the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA, all rights reserved. Used by permission. Lightface type for lector, boldface type for congregation.
|
|
202 - Bible Translation and the Gender of God |
8. The Lord is merciful and gracious,
slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love.9. The Lord will not always chide,
nor harbor anger for ever.10. The Lord does not deal with us according to our sins, nor repay us according to our iniquities.
11. For as the heavens are high above the earth,
so great is the Lord's steadfast love toward
the faithful;12. as far as the east is from the west,
so far does the Lord remove our transgressions from us.13. As a father shows compassion to his children,
so the Lord shows compassion to the faithful.14. For the Lord knows our frame,
and remembers that we are dust.
The United Methodist Liturgical Psalter is intended for public and corporate reading and singing. Hence, the repetition of the words "Lord" and "God" in place of the pronouns discussed here often intensifies the meaning, cogency, and dynamism of the psalms in "choral" speech. This new liturgical Psalter renders the name "Lord" for YHWH, the God to whom, according to the Hebrew scriptures, all creation owes full allegiance in life and death. It retains and reclaims the name "Lord" with the sense of awe, reverence, mystery, and obedience associated with it throughout Holy Scripture for the whole worshipping community.